Editing Piri Reis map

[[Category:Ancient Archology]]

[[File:Piri reis world map 01.jpg|thumb|300px|Surviving fragment of the Piri Reis map showing the Central and South American coast. The appended notes say "the map of the western lands drawn by Columbus"<ref>To The End of the Earth, Jeremy Harwood, Struik Publishers, 2007, {{ISBN|978-1-77007-608-2}}, p.69</ref>]]

The '''Piri Reis map''' is a [[world map]] compiled in 1513 by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] admiral and cartographer [[Piri Reis]]. Approximately one third of the map survives; it shows the western coasts of Europe and North Africa and the coast of Brazil with reasonable accuracy. Various Atlantic islands, including the [[Azores]] and [[Canary Islands]], are depicted, as is the mythical island of [[Antillia]] and possibly Japan.

The map's historical importance lies in its demonstration of the extent of exploration of the [[New World]] by approximately 1510, and in its claim to have used a map made by [[Christopher Columbus]], otherwise lost, as a source. Piri also stated that he had used ten Arab sources and four Indian maps sourced from the Portuguese. More recently, the map has been the focus of claims for the pre-modern exploration of the Antarctic coast.

The Piri Reis map is in the Library of the [[Topkapı Palace]] in Istanbul, Turkey, but is not usually on public display.

==Description==
The map is the extant western third of a world map drawn on gazelle-skin parchment approximately 87&nbsp;cm&nbsp;×&nbsp;63&nbsp;cm.{{refn |Because of its irregular shape, the dimensions have been variously reported as 90&nbsp;cm&nbsp;×&nbsp;63&nbsp;cm,<ref>{{Harvnb|Nebenzahl|1990|p=63}}.</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Soucek|first=Svat|author-link=Svat Soucek|contribution=Piri Re'is|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam|editor1-last=Bosworth|editor1-first=C. E.|editor2-last=van Donzel|editor2-first=E.|editor3-last=Heinrichs|editor3-first=W. P.|display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=Lecomte|editor4-first=G.|year=1995|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|location=[[Leiden]]|volume=8|page=308|isbn=90-04-09834-8|title-link=Encyclopaedia of Islam}}.</ref> 86&nbsp;cm&nbsp;×&nbsp;60&nbsp;cm,<ref name="Kahle621">{{Harvnb|Kahle|1933|p=621}}.</ref> 90&nbsp;cm&nbsp;×&nbsp;65&nbsp;cm,<ref>{{Harvnb|Mollat du Jourdin|La Roncière|le R. Dethan|1984|p=218}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Portinaro|Knirsch|1987|p=47}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Tekeli|1985|p=676}}.</ref> 85&nbsp;cm&nbsp;×&nbsp;60&nbsp;cm,<ref>{{citation|last=Babinger|first=Franz|contribution=Piri Re'is|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam|editor1-last=Houtsma|editor1-first=M. Th.|year=1936|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|location=[[Leiden]]|volume=3|pages=1070–1071|title-link=Encyclopaedia of Islam}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Deissmann|1933|p=111}}.</ref> 87&nbsp;cm&nbsp;×&nbsp;63&nbsp;cm,<ref>{{Harvnb|Van de Waal|1969|p=82}}.</ref> and 86&nbsp;cm&nbsp;×&nbsp;62&nbsp;cm.<ref>{{Harvnb|Smithsonian Institution|1966|p=104}}.</ref>}} The surviving portion primarily details the western coast of Africa and the eastern coast of South America. The map was signed by [[Piri Reis]], an [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman-Turkish]] admiral, geographer and cartographer, and dated to the month of [[Muharram]] in the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic year]] 919 AH, equivalent to 1513 AD.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stiebing|1984|pp=1–2}}.</ref><ref name="Hapgood1">{{Harvnb|Hapgood|1966|p=1}}.</ref> It was presented to Ottoman Sultan [[Selim I]] in 1517.<ref name="Kahle621"/><ref>From the preface of Piri's ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' (1521), as translated in Kahle 1933: "This poor man [Piri Reis] had previously constructed a map which, in comparison with maps hitherto known, displayed many more [and] different details, [and] in which he had included even the newly published maps of the Indian and Chinese Oceans which at that time were totally unknown in the country of Rūm [the Ottoman Empire]; and he had presented it in Cairo to the Turkish Sultan Selim I, who graciously accepted it."</ref> In the map's [[cartography#Map symbology|legend]], Piri inscribed that the map was based on about twenty charts and [[Mappa mundi|mappae mundi]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hapgood|1966|p=2}}.</ref><ref name="Kahle624">{{Harvnb|Kahle|1933|p=624}}.</ref><ref>Inscription 6 on the map reads: "In this age, no one has seen a map like this. The hand of this poor man [Piri Reis] has drawn it and completed it from about twenty charts and mappaemundi. These are charts drawn in the days of Iskender dhu-l Karnian <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Alexander the Great]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, which the inhabited quarter of the world. The Arabs name these charts Jaferya." Translation from {{Harvnb|McIntosh|2000|p=15}}.</ref> According to Piri, these maps included eight [[Ptolemaic map]]s, an [[Arab]]ic map of India, four newly drawn Portuguese maps from [[Sindh]], and a map by [[Christopher Columbus]] of the [[West Indies|western lands]]. From Inscription 6 on the map:
<blockquote>
From eight Jaferyas of that kind and one Arabic map of Hind [India], and from four newly drawn Portuguese maps which show the countries of Sind [now in modern day Pakistan<nowiki>]</nowiki>, Hind and Çin [China] geometrically drawn, and also from a map drawn by Qulūnbū [Columbus] in the western region, I have extracted it. By reducing all these maps to one scale this final form was arrived at, so that this map of these lands is regarded by seamen as accurate and as reliable as the accuracy and reliability of the [[Seven Seas]]<ref>In this case, the Seven Seas are the [[South China Sea|Chinese Sea]], the [[Indian Sea]], the [[Persian Gulf]], the [[Caspian Sea]], the Western Sea (Atlantic Ocean), the [[Red Sea]] and the East African Sea (sea surrounding the [[East Africa]]n island of [[Zanzibar]]), as identified by Piri in ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' (1521). {{Harvnb|Kahle|1933|p=624}}.</ref> on the aforesaid maps."<ref>Translation from {{Harvnb|McIntosh|2000|pp=15, 17}}.</ref>
</blockquote>

There is some scholarly debate over whether the 20 charts and mappae mundi in Piri's inscriptions includes the eight Ptolemaic maps, the four Portuguese maps, the Arabic map and the Columbus map.<ref name="McIntosh18">{{Harvnb|McIntosh|2000|p=18}}</ref> From one perspective, the number of charts and mappae mundi used by Piri equals 20,<ref name="Kahle624"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Afetinan|Yolaç|1954|pp=24, 31}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Kahle|1956|p=106}}.</ref> while in the other, it could mean a total of 34.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tekeli|1985|p=677}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Afetinan|1987|p=27}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Yerci|1989|p=154}}.</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Atil|first=Esin|title=The Age of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent|year=1987|publisher=[[Harry N. Abrams, Inc.]]|location=New York|page=81}}.</ref> Some have claimed that the source maps were found in the ancient [[Library of Alexandria]],<ref>{{citation|last1=Flem-Ath|first1=Rand|last2=Wilson|first2=Colin|title=The Atlantis Blueprint|year=2000|publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]]|page=18}}.</ref> based on Piri's allusions to [[Alexander the Great]], the founder of [[Alexandria]], [[Ptolemy I]], who ruled Alexandria in the 4th century BC, and [[Claudius Ptolemy]], the Greek geographer and cartographer who lived in Alexandria during the 2nd century AD.<ref name="McIntosh18"/> Gregory McIntosh states "Arab writers often confused Claudius Ptolemy, the geographer of the second century C.E., with Ptolemy I, one of Alexander's generals... Piri Reis has undoubtedly made the same error, resulting in his believing the charts and maps were from the time of Ptolemy I instead of Claudius Ptolemy."<ref name="McIntosh17">{{Harvnb|McIntosh|2000|p=17}}</ref>

==History==
The map was discovered serendipitously on 9 October 1929, through the philological work of the German theologian [[Gustav Adolf Deissmann]] (1866–1937). He had been commissioned by the Turkish [[Ministry of National Education (Turkey)|Ministry of Education]] to catalogue the [[Topkapı Palace]] library's non-Islamic items.<ref>A. Gerber, ''Deissmann the Philologist'', Berlin, 2010, 198-201.</ref> At Deissmann's request to search the palace for old maps and charts, the director Halil Edhem (1861–1938) managed to find some disregarded bundles of material, which he handed over to Deissmann.  Realizing that the map might be a unique find, Deissmann showed it to the orientalist [[Paul Kahle]], who identified it as a map drawn by Piri Reis.<ref>G. A. Deissmann, ''Forschungen und Funde im Serai'', Berlin, 1933, 111-122.</ref> The discovery caused an international sensation, as it represented the only then known copy of a world map of Christopher Columbus (1451–1506),<ref>P. Lunde, ‘Piri Reis and the Columbus Map’, Aramco World, 43, 3, 1992, 48-59</ref> and was the only 16th-century map that showed South America in its proper [[Longitude|longitudinal]] position in relation to Africa. Geographers had spent several centuries unsuccessfully searching for a "lost map of Columbus" that was supposedly drawn while he was in the [[West Indies]].<ref name="Hapgood1"/>

After reading about the map's discovery in ''[[The Illustrated London News]]'', [[United States Secretary of State]] [[Henry L. Stimson]] contacted the [[United States Ambassador to Turkey]] [[Charles H. Sherrill (ambassador)|Charles H. Sherrill]] and requested that an investigation be launched to find the Columbus source map, which he believed might have been in Turkey.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hapgood|1966|p=211}}.</ref> In turn, the Turkish government complied with Stimson's request,<ref>{{Cite web |last=lostcivilizations |date=2022-09-09 |title=The Piri Reis Map |url=https://www.neperos.com/article/rhxv75c1a6956a36 |access-date=2022-11-23 |website=Neperos |language=en}}</ref> but they were unsuccessful in locating any of the source maps.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hapgood|1966|pp=1–2}}.</ref>

The map was depicted on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the Turkish 10 million [[Turkish lira|lira]] banknote of 1999–2005,<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615060512/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ |date=2009-06-15 }}. Banknote Museum: 7. Emission Group - Ten Million Turkish Lira - [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E7/10m.htm I. Series] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090915214617/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E7/10m.htm |date=2009-09-15 }}. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009.</ref> and of the new 10 lira banknote of 2005–2009.<ref>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615060512/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/eng/ |date=2009-06-15 }}. Banknote Museum: 8. Emission Group - Ten New Turkish Lira - [http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E8/14.htm I. Series] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417003929/http://tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/banknote/E8/14.htm |date=2009-04-17 }}.<br/>[http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/mevzuat/EMISYON/KARARTEBLIGVEGENELGELER/duyuruytl-ing.htm Announcement on the Withdrawal of E8 New Turkish Lira Banknotes from Circulation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422212451/http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/yeni/mevzuat/EMISYON/KARARTEBLIGVEGENELGELER/duyuruytl-ing.htm |date=2009-04-22 }}, 8 May 2007. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009.</ref>

==Analysis==
The map is a [[portolan chart]], as shown by the four [[compass rose]]s (two large and two small) from which lines of bearing radiate.<ref name="dutch"/> Some analyses assert that the map is an [[azimuthal equidistant projection]] centered on [[Cairo]], but a 1998 analysis by Steven Dutch of the [[University of Wisconsin Green Bay]] shows a better fit with a point near the intersection of the present-day [[prime meridian]] and the [[equator]].<ref name="dutch"/> There are extensive notes in [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] around the edges of the map, as well as some interior detail which is mostly inaccurate and fanciful.<ref name="dutch"/>

The accuracy of the Piri Reis map is mixed. The Iberian peninsula and the coast of Africa, well known to cartographers of the time, are depicted accurately. The Azores, Canary Islands and Cape Verde Islands are portrayed more or less accurately but not drawn to proper scale.<ref name="dutch"/> The northern portion of the South American coast is also rendered fairly accurately and positioned correctly across from Africa.<ref name="dutch"/> Much of the Caribbean also is mapped fairly accurately, perhaps reflecting Christopher Columbus's recent maps of the region. The area representing North America bears little resemblance to the actual coastline except for one projection which might portray [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]. An island nearby labeled "Antilia" might be Nova Scotia since a note there refers to the legendary voyages of [[Brendan the Navigator|Saint Brendan]]. Greenland is not shown on the map.<ref name="dutch"/>

Although there are frequent claims of the Piri Reis map's extreme accuracy, McIntosh, in comparing it to several other [[portolan]]-style maps of the era, found that:
<blockquote>
The Piri Reis map is not the most accurate map of the sixteenth century, as has been claimed, there being many, many world maps produced in the remaining eighty-seven years of that century that far surpass it in accuracy. The [[Diogo Ribeiro|Ribeiro]] maps of the 1520s and 1530s, the [[Abraham Ortelius|Ortelius]] map of 1570, and the [[Edward Wright (mathematician)|Wright]]-[[Emery Molyneux|Molyneux]] map of 1599 ('the best map of the sixteenth century') are only a few better-known examples.<ref>{{Harvnb|McIntosh|2000|p=59}}.</ref>
</blockquote>

However, Piri Reis map was compiled in 1513 and predates all the maps listed above.

Piri Reis shared [[Duarte Pacheco Pereira]]’s concept of the Ocean being surrounded by the continents. An inscription in the Atlantic on the map says that it had been thought to have no limits and that its other side was darkness but that since the voyages of Columbus and of the Portuguese to India it was realized that it was surrounded by coasts, like a lake.<ref>Ayşe Afetinan, ''The Oldest Map of America, drawn by Piri Reis,'' translated by Leman Yolaç, Ankara, Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1954, p.34; Svat Soucek, ''Piri Reis and Turkish Mapmaking after Columbus: The Khalili Portolan Atlas'', London and New York, Nour Foundation and Azimuth Editions, 1992, p.60.</ref>

===The Antarctic coast===
There are two major discrepancies from known coastlines: the North American coast mentioned above, and the southern portion of the South American coast. On the Piri Reis map, the latter is shown bending off sharply to the east starting around present-day [[Rio de Janeiro]]. Another interpretation of this territory has been to identify this section with the [[Queen Maud Land]] coast of Antarctica. This claim is generally traced to Arlington H. Mallery, a civil engineer and amateur archaeologist who was a supporter of [[pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact]] hypotheses. Though his assertions were not well received by scholars, they were revived in [[Charles Hapgood]]'s 1966 book ''Maps of the Ancient Sea Kings''.<ref name="dutch"/> This book proposed a theory of global exploration by a pre-classical undiscovered civilisation based on his analysis of this and other ancient and late-medieval maps. More notoriously, these claims were repeated in [[Erich von Däniken]]'s ''[[Chariots of the Gods?]]'' (which attributed the knowledge of the coast to [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrials]]) and [[Gavin Menzies]]'s ''[[1421: The Year China Discovered the World]]'' (which attributed it to supposed Chinese voyages), both of which were roundly denounced by mainstream scholars.<ref name="dutch"/>

An analysis of these claims was published by Gregory McIntosh, a historian of cartography, who examined the map in depth in his book ''The Piri Reis Map of 1513'' (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 2000). He was able to find sources for much of the map in Columbus's writings. Certain peculiarities (such as the appearance of the Virgin Islands in two locations) he attributed to the use of multiple maps as sources; others (such as the errors in North American geography) he traced to the continued confusion of the area with East Asia. As far as the accuracy of depiction of the supposed Antarctic coast is concerned, there are two conspicuous errors. First, it is shown hundreds of kilometres north of its proper location; second, the [[Drake Passage]] is completely missing, with the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] presumably conflated with the Western Patagonian coast. The identification of this area of the map with the frigid Antarctic coast is also difficult to reconcile with the notes on the map which describe the region as having a warm climate.<ref name="dutch"/>

Maps of the period generally depicted a large continent named ''[[Terra Australis Incognita]]'' of highly variable shape and extent. This land was posited by [[Ptolemy]] as a counterbalance to the extensive continental areas in the northern hemisphere. [[Marcus Tullius Cicero]] used the term ''cingulus australis'' ("southern zone") in referring to the Antipodes in ''[[Somnium Scipionis]]'' ("Dream of Scipio").<ref>Duo [cingulis] sunt habitabiles, quorum australis ille, in quo qui insistunt adversa vobis urgent vestigia, nihil ad vestrum genus ("Two of them [the five belts or zones that gird and surround the earth] are habitable, of which the southern, whose inhabitants are your antipodes, bears no relation to your people"). Alfred Hiatt, "Terra Australis and the Idea of the Antipodes", Anne M. Scott (ed), ''European Perceptions of Terra Australis,'' Ashgate Publishing, 2012, pp.&nbsp;18–10.</ref> Due to a lack of exploration and various misunderstandings, its existence was not fully abandoned until circumnavigation of the area during the [[second voyage of James Cook]] in the 1770s showed that if it existed, it was much smaller than imagined previously. The first confirmed landing on Antarctica was only during the [[First Russian Antarctic Expedition]] in 1820, and the coastline of Queen Maud Land did not see significant exploration before Norwegian expeditions began in 1891.<ref>{{cite web|author=U.S. Antarctic Program External Panel of the [[National Science Foundation]]|title=Antarctica—Past and Present|url=https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/antpanel/antpan05.pdf|access-date=6 February 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html|title=Nathaniel Brown Palmer, 1799-1877|publisher=NASA, U.S. Government|author=Guy G. Guthridge|access-date=6 February 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060202101525/http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html|archive-date=2 February 2006}}</ref> In 1513, [[Cape Horn]] had not yet been discovered, and indeed [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s voyage of circumnavigation was not to set sail [[Timeline of Magellan's circumnavigation|for another six years]]. It is unclear whether the mapmaker saw South America itself as part of the unknown southern lands (as shown in the [[Miller Atlas]]),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.diegocuoghi.com/Piri_Reis/PiriReis_eng.htm |author=Diego Cuoghi |title=The Mysteries of the Piri Reis map}}</ref> or whether (as Dutch thought) he drew what was then known of the coast with substantial distortion. Dutch holds that there is no reason to believe that the map is the product of genuine knowledge of the Antarctic coast.<ref name="dutch">{{cite web|url=http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/pseudosc/piriries.htm|title=The Piri Reis Map|first=Steven|last=Dutch|access-date=2013-08-16|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813090645/http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/PiriRies.HTM|archive-date=2013-08-13}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Geography in medieval Islam]]
*[[Ancient world maps]]
*[[World map]]
*[[Waldseemüller map]]
*[[Johannes Schöner globes]], made in 1515 and 1520. Also shows a Southern Continent at the South Pole.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{citation|last1=Afetinan|first1=A.|last2=Yolaç|first2=Leman (trans.)|title=The Oldest Map of America, Drawn by Piri Reis|year=1954|publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi|location=[[Ankara]]|pages=6–15}}.
* {{citation|last=Afetinan|first=A.|title=Life and Works of Piri Reis: The Oldest Map of America|year=1987|publisher=Turkish Historical Society|location=Ankara|edition=2nd|oclc=19674051}}.
* {{citation|last=Deissmann|first=Adolf|title=Forschungen und Funde im Serai: Mit einem Verzeichnis der nichtislamischen Handscriften im Topkapu Serai in Istanbul|year=1933|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|location=Berlin}}.
* {{citation|last1=Flem-Ath|first1=Rand|author-link1=Rand Flem-Ath|last2=Wilson|first2=Colin|author-link2=Colin Wilson|title=The Atlantis Blueprint|date=2000|publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]]|location=[[Great Britain]]|pages=18|isbn=0-316-85313-5}}.
* {{citation|last=Hapgood|first=Charles H.|author-link=Charles Hapgood|title=Maps of the Ancient Sea Kings: Evidence of Advanced Civilization in the Ice Age|publisher=Chilton Books|location=New York|year=1966|isbn=0-8019-5089-9}}.
* {{citation|last=Kahle|first=Paul E.|author-link=Paul E. Kahle|title=A Lost Map of Columbus|date=October 1933|journal=Geographical Review|volume=23|pages=621–638|doi=10.2307/209247|issue=4|publisher=American Geographical Society|jstor=209247}}.
* {{citation|last=Kahle|first=Paul E.|author-link=Paul E. Kahle|title=Piri Re'is: The Turkish Sailor and Cartographer|date=April 1956|journal=Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society|volume=4|pages=101–111}}.
* {{citation|last=McIntosh|first=Gregory C.|title=The Piri Reis Map of 1513|year=2000|publisher=[[University of Georgia Press]]|location=[[Athens, Georgia|Athens]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]|isbn=0-8203-2157-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/gregory-c.-mc-intosh-the-piri-reis-map-of-1513}}.
* {{citation|last1=Mollat du Jourdin|first1=Michel|last2=La Roncière|first2=Monique|last3=le R. Dethan|first3=L. (trans.)|title=Sea Charts of the Early Explorers, Thirteenth to Seventeenth Century|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]]|location=New York|year=1984|isbn=0-500-01337-3}}.
* {{citation|last=Nebenzahl|first=Kenneth|title=Atlas of Columbus and the Great Discoveries|publisher=[[Rand McNally]]|location=Chicago|year=1990|isbn=0-528-83407-X}}.
* {{citation|last1=Portinaro|first1=Pierluigi|last2=Knirsch|first2=Franco|title=The Cartography of North America, 1500–1800|year=1987|publisher=[[Facts on File]]|location=New York|isbn=0-8160-1586-4}}.
* {{citation|author=Smithsonian Institution|author-link=Smithsonian Institution|title=Art Treasures of Turkey|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1966|oclc=1027066}}.
*{{Cite book |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=The History of Cartography |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1992 |isbn=0226316351 |volume=2, Book 1 |chapter=14 - Islamic Charting in the Mediterranean |chapter-url=https://press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/HOC_VOLUME2_Book1_chapter14.pdf}}
* {{citation|last=Stiebing|first=William H. Jr.|title=Ancient Astronauts, Cosmic Collisions and Other Popular Theories about Man's Past|publisher=[[Prometheus Books]]|location=[[Amherst, New York|Amherst]], [[New York (state)|New York]]|year=1984|isbn=0-87975-285-8}}.
* {{citation|last=Tekeli|first=Sevim|author-link=Sevim Tekeli|title=The Map of America by Piri Reis|year=1985|journal=Erdem|volume=1|pages=673–683|issue=3|doi=10.32704/erdem.1985.3.673 |s2cid=167145440 }}.
* {{citation|last=Van de Waal|first=E. H.|title=Manuscript Maps in the Topkapǐ Saray Library, Istanbul|year=1969|journal=Imago Mundi|volume=23|issue=1|pages=81–95|doi=10.1080/03085696908592335}}.
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Wolff |editor1-first=Hans |title=America : Early Maps of the New World |date=1992 |publisher=Prestel |location=Munich |isbn=3791312324 |page=43 |language=en }}
* {{citation|last=Yerci|first=M.|title=The Accuracy of the First World Map Drawn by Piri Reis|year=1989|journal=The Cartographic Journal|volume=26|pages=154–155|issue=2|doi=10.1179/caj.1989.26.2.154}}.

==External links==
*[http://www.turkeyinmaps.com/piri.html ''Turkey in Maps'']: The Piri Reis margin notes, translation from ''The Oldest Map of America'' (Afet Inan, Ankara, 1954).
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050207094802/http://www.misteriufo.it/pirigrid3.gif Charles Hapgood commentary] on the Piri Reis map, photocopied from ''Maps of the Ancient Sea Kings''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130813090645/http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/PiriRies.HTM Steven Dutch, University of Wisconsin]: debunking ''Piri Reis'' pseudo-scholarship
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/piri/index.htm ''Sacred Text Archive'']: pseudo-scholarship about an Ice Age civilization, translation of the map commentary.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051120081500/http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/LUNDE01.ART "Piri Reis and the Columbian Theory"] by Paul Lunde: {{sm|ascii}} text from ''Aramco World Magazine'' (Jan-Feb 1980). ''Citat:'' "...There may, in fact, be an even simpler explanation of the presence of "Antarctica" on the Piri Reis map..."
*[http://www.intersurf.com/~chalcedony/FOG9.html ''Fingerprints of the Gods''] (2001) {{sm|ascii}} text. ''Citat:'' "...William Miller wrote:...The examinations that I have made of it show all sorts of errors that certainly falsify any claim of unusual accuracy for this map..."
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/mom/oronteus.html The Mysterious Origins of Man: The Oronteus Finaeus Map of 1532, by Paul Heinrich]: the Oronteus map and Creationism
* [https://www.batuhanaksu.com/ottoman-history/piri-reis-map-explained-and-elaborated/ Piri Reis Map: Explained and Elaborated]: by Batuhan Aksu. The transliteration and translation of all texts on the map into Turkish and English (suggested by Gregory C. McIntosh).
*[https://www.diegocuoghi.com/Piri_Reis/PiriReis_eng.htm ''The Mysteries of the Piri Reis Map'']: by Diego Cuoghi. On the Piri Reis, Oronteus, and Philippe Buache maps; comparison to other 16th-century maps of America and Asia, debunking the Antarctica claims.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071105072536/http://maps.turkeyodyssey.com/turkey_thematic_maps/turkey_historical_maps.php Ottoman-Turkish Historical Maps]: includes a large (1&nbsp;MB) but low-resolution image of the Piri Reis map (not as clear as Wikipedia's image)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20170331074022/https://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/PiriRies.HTM The Piri Reis Map by Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay]